Rethinking the right to know and the case for restorative epistemic reparation

In the spirit of this special issue to center on wronged individuals and groups, their account how wrongs should be understood repaired, what actions promote repair, article focuses groups by genocide entitlement epistemic reparation in aftermath genocide. I argue that requires not only fulfillment informational needs victims, survivors, descendants, including access archives, documents, provision knowledge about violations. addition, taking into idea injuries, which are part parcel genocidal atrocities, also ought include recognition re-establishment victims' standing or short. This insight is suggested fact enabled, “justified” even prescribed through a epistemology, an epistemology ignorance constituted propagation falsehoods misinformation social reality but abuses authority authoritarianism, systematically exclude targeted from community trust. Epistemic trust kind allows us gain generate other kinds inputs with others. For example, we others tell truth—or at least, they hold true intentionally deceive us—and recognize as trustworthy contributors, do best understand our words intend them. To unwarrantedly epistemically distrusted means deprived consequently, uptake necessary participate, for generation shared understanding revise misunderstandings imposed those dominating power—in case hand, advocates perpetrators. Accordingly, revision dysfunctional practices underlie sustain epistemology. would make instrumentally valuable insofar it may, example educational measures, prevent recurrence these wrongs, intrinsically re-asserts repairs survivors descendants’ standing. It provides them has been withdrawn them, making crucial element restorative justice. follows, start introducing “genocidal epistemology” based Armenian 1915–1917. historical continues denied succeeding governments Turkey, useful study exploring value reparation. The methodological impetus here insights (restorative) justice negative: failed fail. underlying matters injustice also, perhaps more crucially, (willful) ignorance. discuss atrocities were driven ethno-nationalist ideology grounded both racial religious domination. Such generated maintained behalf perpetrators, whereby morally socially epistemically.1 These background conditions against develop my subsequent analysis right know its potential. Hence, second, address know, one United Nations Commission Human Rights (UNCHR) core pillars combating impunity crimes under international law, principles lens correctives. More specifically, principles, acknowledging rights, function correctives pressure pernicious persists such perpetrators attempt achieve maintain absolution impunity, well normalize injustice, is, consolidate then introduce can regarded corrective pressures disinformation: Ottoman tribunals attempted prosecute accordingly, role history law concepts “crimes humanity” “genocide” particular. Third, highlight problem denialism thus failure primarily lack relevant knowledge, processes distort, occlude, obscure knowledge. Based this, propose corrects corrupted guards ongoing harms toward victims-survivors descendants. Not go along information, evidence, violations, recognition: While step formal must rooted commitment restore capability contribution.2 [C]ollective (such genocide) typically preceded symbolic stigmatizations population particular expressive become accepted habitual (the use slurs denigrating language group; attitudes discourses suspect cast doubt acceptability; demonization behavior, culture, customs; etc.) (Medina, 2013, p. 250) take cues focusing “justification injustice” Pauer-Studer Velleman 2011, who critical view Nazi obvious cases immorality context Third Reich. After all, “if had today, might never have occurred” (p. 330). Rather, moral reasoning could misfire broad scale because morality became distorted level articulation. normative infused ideology, led mischaracterize situation “and consequently misinterpreted misapplied guidelines conventional morality” 334). perpetration was enabled distortions stages interpretation application, among things, misconceptions provided context. entail “empirical ‘[the] community's circumstances’ (Herman, 1993, pp. 83–84)—for Arendt called ‘the lie most effective whole German people’ (Arendt, 1994, 52), namely, Germans engaged Schicksalskampf race intent annihilating them” (Pauer-Studer 352). empirical accompanied distortions. Perpetrators considered justified, “moral filtered conditioned interpretations perceptions gave events significance” 340). case, when gassing Jews viewed medical staff “humanitarian treatment people going die way another” 345) humane saving typhus epidemics, illustrating code ethics. commonly argued—and evident European Jewry, mentioned above—that genocides very supported conspiracy propaganda perpetrating group, namely group presents existential threat posed exaggerated, often assimilation much powerful enemy. Armenians, enemy Western Russian imperialist powers. However, justification inherent (of wrongdoing) consists than systematic disinformation, spread falsehoods, propagandistic lies circumstances. Unlike lying, denying precludes acceptance certain truths facts. rather points motivated, “active effort see, no matter evidence may be; result constant distortion redescription” 35) injustice. Drawing insights, genocide” conditional upon active willful exclusion Their particular, grievances, enables maintenance required complicity perpetration. following, apply My main focus will overarching, institutionalized system ruling authorities cultivate impose (un)knowing broadly rationalized, granting success long-term denialism.4 How misrepresented Empire, providing cognitive framework justifying genocide? One Young Turks' Turkish supremacy, Turkism, claim life-or-death struggle internal external enemies, especially exaggeration power empire lend support Armenians deserved harsh innocent victims (what some scholars call “provocation thesis”). Of course, being perceived “threat” put context: Threatening whom? following brief discussion late Turkist/Turkish nationalist order seeks give answers questions. A few years after Turk revolution 1908 forced Sultan Abdul Hamid II. Constitution 1876, military coup January 23, 1913, end liberal opposition. Instead, (Pan-)Turkism Turanism theory homogenous (Turkish-)national polity economy propagated “Committee Union Progress” (CUP). engineered small circle within party established observers described triumvirate consisting Enver Pasha, Talaat Bey, Djemal Pasha. split ultimately War Minister Pasha's Interior Bey's factions lead Empire First World (alongside Germany) organize 1914 onwards.5 Ziya Gökalp, prominent CUP propagandist, central committee member influence over shaping party's economic Turkish-nationalist policies. (Kaiser, 2014, 82–83) As leading ideologue, he advocated extremist views Talaat. (Kieser, 2018, 11–12, 98–106) his poems suggested, “The country Turks nor yet Turkestan, everlasting land – Turan” (transl. cited Heyd, 1950, 126). Gökalp's definition nation “a society speak same language, education united religious, aesthetic ideals—in short, common culture religion” 63). He further deemed total unquestioning service basis morality. Besides traditional Christians general state power, excluded large. break society, least tolerated given place though inferior one—as discussed below. Having thusly legitimized “Turkish nation” making, policies sought deprive livelihood. first applications boycotts between 1912 Greek businesses, extended Assyrian/Syriac/Chaldean Christians. followed deportation replacement businesses Muslim entrepreneurs landlords. At time, government houses farms ambitious settlement program involving immigrants Balkans create majority populations.6 Kaiser (2010, 381) notes, “[b]y ‘Turkifying’ entire regions non-Turkish non-Muslim communities, remove competing claims territory.” during Balkan Wars 1912–1913 bolstered “national awakening” grassroots anti-Armenian, generally anti-Christian (Çetinkaya, 2015) confiscation plundering mostly enriched high functionaries, former officers, Unionist bureaucrats, local elites supporting CUP. policy destroy empire's communities adopted before beginning War, came enforcement new which, like policy, semblance (retroactive) legality.7 proclamation Jihad Empire's entry energized subjects beyond. contributed atmosphere distrust towards incitement violence mass pillage, facilitating implementation different regions. motives surely present anti-Armenian institutional theoretical legitimacy policies, laws decrees, overarching theories nationalistic awakening terms exclusionary racist conceptualizations (Muslim-) “engineered” (Şeker, 3), liberated defended. Nevertheless, enabling concerned, suggest justificatory ignited preceding, religious-politically discriminatory prejudices target groups. …apart intentions leaders immediate circumstances resulting decision exterminate nation, fertile ground past socio-political discrimination collective phantasms shaped unequal relations dominant dominated (Astourian, 1990, 112) key transitions broke social-political Tanzimat Era (1839–1876), period where various national revolutions taken Europe ideas equality propagated. therefore, time negotiate extent “Europeanisation” Islamic self-understanding order. During two Imperial edicts passed: 1839, “Sharia-based non-Muslims abolished, all regardless ethnic affiliation proclaimed” (Grigoriadis, 2012, 283), 1856, “protection fundamental human rights civil liberties extension specified” (ibid.). reforms promoted Ottomanism shall grant millets loyal subject education, appointments, administration religion ethnicity. opened door resentment, anti-constitutionalism, discussions concerning “natural inequality” Muslims heretofore class, establishment, officials, feared undermining potential Ottoman-imperialist domination—indeed constituting breach centuries tradition. class reinstate domination, large-scale massacres Assyrians, known Hamidian 1894 1897.9 happened reign (1876–1909), ended era establish version state. reign, come clear (Ihrig, 2016, 21). partly due resettlement seemingly “hostile” “disloyal” elements. lands thereby home fleeing persecution, Crimean Tatars Circassians, later reigns, refugees Caucasus Balkans, above.10 religious-political played preceding persecutions—even if used rhetoric served strategic ends. point met grounds light traditionally presumed inferiority non-Muslims, “infidels” society. Interestingly likely justify Ottoman-German alliance, press any persecution massacres. Post newspaper stated, “No Christian except killed. They killed members seditious people” (Die Post, October 29, 1896, Ihrig, 46). By Christianity significant factor “the papers shifted alleged qualities, simultaneously began killing global fashion” essentialist discourse presented “both duplicate modern anti-Semitism” 60).11 marginalization did correspond obscures Notwithstanding actual prevalence population, idioms proverbs existence generally, epistemically: “Fidelity ghiaour [turk. infidel], [is unlikely as] healing poison,” “From amongst ghaiours, impossible [or, wrong] friends,” “Intriguer Armenian,” “Spiritual Armenian, [physical] Jew exist” Astourian, 1999, 28–30). imply contributions low credibility cultural (including religious) identity; participation meaning made sure contribute effectively accurate, experiences Empire. Throughout 19th 20th centuries, ignite ends.12 Against background, sense impact social-historical maintain, drawing structural parallel “Turkishness” “whiteness”: Charles Mills defines “whiteness” political construction brings “cognitive model self-transparency genuine realities,” ensuring whites live “racial fantasyland, [or] ‘consensual hallucination’,” root psychically conquest, colonization, enslavement” (Mills, 1997, 18–19). What, then, response epistemology? UNCHR acknowledges alongside justice, guarantees non-recurrence, pillar “holistic” approach transitional hence state's obligation combat protect “serious law.”13 seen addressed isolation another. depend another so-called “symbolic” reparations alone—such apologies—are sufficient real transformations repair unjust material full less likely. Further, measures establishment memorials museums misinform mislead public properly respect rights; disregard experienced exclusively victimhood without responsibility Moreover, legal prosecution punishment individual insufficient systematic, social, vast societal atrocities. (GP 1) Inalienable Right Truth: “Every inalienable truth heinous reasons led, massive crimes. Full exercise vital safeguard violations.” 2) Duty Preserve Memory: “A people's oppression heritage and, such, ensured appropriate State's duty preserve archives violations humanitarian facilitate aimed preserving memory extinction guarding development revisionist negationist arguments.” 3) Victims' Know: “Irrespective proceedings, families imprescriptible took event death disappearance, fate.” (towards failure) GP seek correct. now particularly resist relation Garibian (2016) convincingly argues, confront defuse disinformation—in there “no consensus” regards characterization crime—is adopting perspective criminal pertains important facts: That committed “were original reason creation concept crime humanity subsequently, conjunction Jewish people, genocide,” further, first, abortive set up tribunal question, 1945” (Garibian, 241). overview substantiate points. Its stated aim judge crimes, “revolted humanity,” “of nature forever cause conscience humankind quiver horror” contrary “rules humanity.” chief culprits Pacha) sentenced absentia, while lower-ranking Ittihadists prison sentences 15 hard labor, ministers acquitted. 245, footnotes omitted) [T]he Fifteen, American Secretary State Robert Lansing, job examining individuals' breaches customs war. Alongside work preparation trials war criminals, envisaged prosecuting officials outside scope armed conflict. report dated March 5, 1919, specified question: terrorism, murders massacres, honor women, private property, looting, confiscations property belonging charitable institutions, wanton destruction executions civilians false allegations civilian personnel. 242) Treaty Sèvres ratified, replaced Lausanne victory Greco-Turkish 1922 Angora Allies. Elements humanity, cessation territory Armenia dropped. included minority protection clauses, Ekmekçioğlu (2014) out paradoxically entrenched divisions already formed violent decades. fact, Kemalist continued Turkification introduced emergence bourgeoisie, demonstrating ideological continuity Turkism newly founded Republic. 284). Despite entrenched, undeniable importance. Indeed, moral-epistemic disinformation denial campaigns. epistemologies legacy, denialism, knowledge; often, owed available continuing domination.16 elaborate notion injury, proposing response. Linguistic enacted delivered discursive behaviors, speech acts ordinarily constitute psychological damage person, permission physical damage, assault death. dimension type harm, harm. recent scholarship stand reciprocal situations render seriously harmful. proposal t